1. Classical conditioning - Classical conditioning is based on the premise that a physical event – termed a stimulus – that initially does not elicit a particular response gradually acquires the capacity to elicit that response as a result of repeated pairing with a stimulus that elicits a reaction. The first model, classical conditioning, was initially identified by Pavlov in the salivation reflex of dogs. Salivation is an innate reflex, or unconditioned response, to the presentation of food, an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate merely to the sound of a buzzer (a conditioned stimulus), after it was sounded a number of times in conjunction with the presentation of food. Learning is said to occur because salivation has been conditioned to a new stimulus that did not elicit it initially. The pairing of food with the buzzer acts to reinforce the buzzer as the prominent stimulus.
2. Operant conditioning - Operant conditioning also called instrumental conditioning refers to the process that our behavior produces certain consequences are. If our actions have pleasant effects, then we will be more likely to repeat them in the future. If, however, our actions have unpleasant effects, we are less likely to repeat them in the future. Thus, according to this theory, behavior is the function of its consequences. The famous Skinner box demonstrated operant conditioning by placing a rat in a box in which the pressing of a small bar produces food. Skinner showed that the rat eventually learns to press the bar regularly to obtain food. Besides reinforcement, punishment produces avoidance behavior, which appears to weaken learning but not curtail it. In both types of conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs; i.e., the conditioned response may be elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus but not used in the original training.
3. Cognitive theory - Contemporary perspective about learning is that it is a cognitive process. Cognitive process assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn. Cognitive theory of learning assumes that the organism learns the meaning of various objects and event and learned responses depending on the meaning assigned to stimuli. Edward Tolman (1930) found that unrewarded rats learned the layout of a maze, yet this was not apparent until they were later rewarded with food. Tolman called this latent learning, and it has been suggested that the rats developed cognitive maps of the maze that they were able to apply immediately when a reward was offered. The cognitive theory of learning is relevant in the contemporary managerial practices. Many motivation theories center on the concept of cognition. Expectations, attributions and locus of control are all cognitive concepts requiring attention while motivating employees.
4. Social learning theory - Also called observational learning, social learning theory, emphasizes the ability of an individual to learn by observing others. The important models may include parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV artists, bosses and others. An individual acquires new knowledge by observing what happens to his or her model. This is popularly known as vicarious learning. A learner acquires tacit knowledge and skills through vicarious learning. Social learning increases self-efficiency because people gain greater self-confidence after observing someone else do it than if they are simply told what to do. Managers can shape employee behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired response. If an employee, for example, who has been chronically a half-hour late for work comes in only twenty minutes late, the boss can reinforce that improvement.

1. Motivation - The concept of motivation is basic because, without motivation learning does not take place or, at least, is not discernible. Motivation may be seen at different levels of complexity of a situation. A thirsty rat will learn the path through a maze to a dish of water; it is not likely to do so well, or even more purposefully at all, if it is satiated.
2. Reinforcement, punishment and extinction - Reinforcement issued to enhance desirable behavior; punishment and extinction are employed to minimize undesirable behavior.
3. Whole versus part learning - A great deal of work has been done in psychology of learning to decide whether learning a whole job is superior to breaking the job into parts and learning the parts. In parts learning, the individual is not only required to learn each individual part but must be able to combine the separate parts so that the whole performance can be accomplished.
4. Learning curves - A highly useful learning concept which is valid for a wide range of situation is the learning curve, a diagrammatic presentation of the amount learned in relation to time. A typical learning curve will show on the Y-axis the amount learnt and the X-axis the passage of time.
5. Meaningfulness of material - A definite relationship has been established between learning and meaningfulness of the subject learnt. The more meaningful the materials, the better does learning proceed. Learning of nonsense syllables proceeds more slowly than that of prose or poetry.
6. Learning styles - A manager’s long-term success depends more on the ability to learn than on the mastery of the specific skills or technical knowledge. There are four styles people use when learning: accommodation, divergence, assimilation and convergence. The four styles are based on dimensions: feeling versus thinking and doing versus observing.

Learning as a Managerial tool